The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation

1. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH BEFORE THE PROTESTANT REFORM 

In the fifteenth century, among the evident signs of the crisis of the church were ecclesiastical abuses, or incorrect behavior by religious, who used their power to pursue only their own gains.  It is no coincidence that many families were aiming for a future in the church, precisely to be able to guarantee a prestigious future.  Giovanni de 'Medici, who became a cardinal at 13, is a concrete example of this.  Each cardinal was not required to reside in the place where he was to exercise his ministry: this naturally allowed him to have more offices and consequently more income.  The cardinals were not far from the luxuries, which indeed they flaunted: the church, for many, began to be looked upon with suspicion, as a predatory association interested only in its own wealth.  2. THE PROTESTANT REFORM At the beginning of the sixteenth century there were only two Christian churches in Europe: the Catholic and the Orthodox.  In the middle of the century many abandoned the Catholic Church to join new churches, but the main religious revolution was the Protestant reform, which arose from economic, political, social and above all religious causes (above all, the indulgence scandal).  The causes Back in Rome, the papacy was committed to strengthening its power, and this transformed the church of Rome into a modern principality.  The male monasteries had the monopoly of preaching and taxes, while the female ones welcomed the female offspring of noble families, those who were not destined to marry. Often the spread of Protestantism coincided with the affirmation of secular power over the local church.  Ultimately, the peasants demanded a more equitable distribution of wealth.  The religious causes of the Protestant Reformation were: Religious sensitivity: religiosity was marked by anguish for the end of the world and many feared the salvation of their souls and found consolation in expiatory practices Corruption of the clergy: ignorant priests and bishops interested in temporal power they were not the best example for the faithful.Theological Confusion: Theologians often held conflicting doctrines, causing confusion in the faithful.  The sale of indulgences The situation worsened with the scandal of the sale of indulgences.  First of all, a definition.  What is meant by indulgence?  Indulgence is the reduction of the penalty to be suffered in Purgatory in proportion to the sins committed.  It is granted by the church in particular circumstances and it is necessary that the sinner repent, confess and offer money to the church to redeem his sins.In 1517 Pope Leo X, to raise money for the dome of St. Peter, promoted the collection of alms in exchange for indulgences.

Martin Luther and the 95 theses Martin Luther was a German monk, professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg.  The discovery of the Gospel was for him the overcoming of the inner drama: while fearing judgment, he understood that man was not forced to perform works to save himself, but a Christian could find the end of his anguish only with faith in God's mercy On 31 October 1517 Luther posted 95 theses in Latin on the door of the church in Wittenberg in which he condemned the work of the church.  He did not deny the value of indulgences, but affirmed their limited effectiveness. The pope invited Luther to Rome to ask for forgiveness and on June 15, 1520 he issued a bull giving Luther 60 days to retract.  Luther did not accept and on December 10 set fire to some texts including the papal bull.  According to Luther, the church had betrayed the gospel and Christianity had to be reformed according to 3 principles: Free examination: the sacred text, for Luther, must be read and interpreted by the faithful without an external intermediary.  Furthermore, Luther recognizes only baptism and communion as sacraments. Justification by faith alone: man, led to evil, is saved only if God gives him faith.  Salvation arises from predestination The universal priesthood: for Luther the distinction between priests and laity did not exist before God: if believers are priests of themselves, even priests can marry. On the basis of this Luther did not recognize the authority of church and after about a month he was excommunicated.  3. RELIGIOUS STRUGGLES IN GERMANY After the excommunication it was up to the emperor to arrest the heretic and hand him over to Rome.  Summoned by Charles V Luther he arrived in Worms on April 16, 1521 and when asked if he was willing to retract he asked for a day to reflect.  Charles V allowed Luther to leave, but decided to take action against him.  In the absence of Charles V, however, no nobleman arrested Luther: Frederick of Saxony, on the contrary, organized a false kidnapping and on 4 May Luther was placed in safety in the castle of Wartburg where he undertook the German translation of the bible. two kingdoms, according to which the Christian internally recognizes only the evangelical law (kingdom of the church) and externally he must obey the political authority willed by God to guarantee order in the world (kingdom of the state).  The first to take the initiative were the knights.  The small nobility tried to take over the ecclesiastical principalities (phenomenon of secularization), the peasants joined more extremist reform movements, rebelling against nobility and clergy.  The German princes pushed by Luther severely repressed the revolts. The direct reference to the bible gave a common basis to the demands of the peasants: the "divine right" was the same for everyone.  The manifesto of this revolution were the 12 articles of March 1525, within which there were many innovations of the political, social and religious order. Among the participants there were also nobles, miners and bourgeois, who allied themselves with the peasants to oppose the governments of their cities. Thomas Muntzer rejected the theory of the two kingdoms, instead preaching the coming to earth of the kingdom of Christ.  Luther distanced himself from this movement which used writing to exert violence and defined Muntzer as a devil.  A document was drawn up in Augusta, the Confessio Augustana, which sought to reconcile Catholics and Lutherans, but the document was too harsh for the former and too conciliatory for the latter.  Charles V sided with the Catholics and against him was born the League of Smalcalda made up of Protestant princes and eleven imperial cities, supported by France, England and Denmark. Protestantism was by now a great political power.  4. THE REFORM IN SWITZERLAND Reform in Switzerland spread from Zurich.  In 1519 Zwingli, who shared the controversy for the Roman church, justification by faith alone and predestination, did not accept the Eucharistic doctrine and considered the Eucharist a simple reminder of the Last Supper, placed patriotism among his cardinal principles. .  Zwingli hoped that Switzerland would stop sending mercenaries to armies and implement a peaceful policy.  In 1522 Zwingli put himself at the service of the city of Zurich by reforming the local church: Catholic rites were banned, forms of worship renewed and sacred images and the mass were abolished.On the political level, the reform gained the accession of Bern, but the Catholic cantons opposed them so as not to be forced to give up their lucrative mercenary enlistments.  Thus a civil war broke out.  

Giovanni Calvino was born in France.  His father, a notary, made him assign an ecclesiastical benefit from the age of 12, thanks to this he was able to follow philosophy courses where he dominated the influence of Christian humanism.  He approached Protestantism for reasons still unknown, and in 1536 he published his fundamental work in Basel: Institution of the Christian religion, the most complete and clear exposition of Protestant theology.  In 1537 Calvin wrote a catechism to which he attached a profession of faith that all citizens of Geneva were required to follow under oath, under penalty of exile.  Calvin shared Luther's justification for faith alone but radicalized the theme of predestination, according to which only the elect could be saved. more tangible than predestination.  The faith had to be witnessed in front of everyone, and for this reason he did not share the attitudes of those who secretly practiced their faith. Calvino considered only baptism and communion valid sacraments, even if for the latter he did not admit the true presence of Christ.  5. THE DIFFUSION OF THE PROTESTANT REFORM The Lutheran reform spread throughout northern Europe: in England Henry VIII initially promoted a reform of the church inspired by the concepts of Christian Humanism, initially composing a polemical writing against Luther and obtaining from Leo X the title of defensor fidei.  This situation changed radically at the end of the century, when the English region became predominantly Protestant. Henry VIII's break with Rome occurred when the monarch did not obtain from the pope the annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon to marry Anna Bolena.  In 1532 Henry VIII had the marriage declared null and void and reacted to the pope's threat of excommunication with the act of supremacy by which Parliament recognized him as the sole and supreme head of the Church of England. The Anglican Church remained substantially faithful to Catholicism even if it presented itself as a crossroads of different theological conceptions.In the Netherlands Calvinism spread instead despite the severe measures taken by Charles V to impose respect for the Catholic faith and despite the persecutions it spread also in France. despite the policies of persecution, the Huguenots proved ready to defend the faith as Calvin had taught.  The Lutheran faith was imposed in Prussia.

6. THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORM It took several years before the Catholic Church regained power after the harsh blow inflicted on it by the Protestant Reformation. Elements of spiritual renewal had already been present for some time and soon to this were added other experiences such as the Society of Jesus, that is, a Catholic reform that preceded and accompanied the counter-reform.  The Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus was a precious instrument for the Counter-Reformation and was founded in 1534 by Ignatius of Loyola. In addition to the ordinary vows, the Society of Jesus provided for another vote: obedience to the pope.  This committed the Jesuits to carry out their ministry where the pope wished.  The company was consecrated to the apostolate, that is, to the spread of the faith.  The Jesuit had to seek his own holiness through the sanctification of the faithful, and this led to full availability in missionary activity.  At the top of the structure was the General Provost to whom every Jesuit owed strict obedience. This religious order was mainly involved in the field of education, in order to control the formation of the ruling class and orient it in a Catholic sense.  The Council of Trent The leaders of the church did not immediately understand the significance of the Protestant Reformation, to the point that the convocation of a council was urged by the Catholic sovereigns.  It was Pope Paul III who listened to them.  The council opened in Trent (halfway between Rome and Germany) in 1545 in the presence of thirty bishops, and after several interruptions it had its last session starting from 1562.The measures adopted can be grouped into doctrinal decrees relating to religious truths and decrees of reform relating to the organization of the church and clergy. The council wanted to reaffirm all the truths of faith that had been contested by the new doctrines: The free examination of the Bible was declared illegitimate, rejecting Protestant individualism. faith alone was rejected, and alongside faith the need for good works was reaffirmed. The value of all seven sacraments, effective instruments of grace, was emphasized. The importance of the priestly order was emphasized and Eucharist.The existence of Purgatory and the validity of indulgences, of the cult of the saints and of the Virgin, of relics and images were reaffirmed.  ni sacre It was established that the liturgy should be celebrated in Latin.  We are in 1545: the authorities of the Catholic Church find themselves facing the pitfalls deriving from Luther's Protestant Reformation with great difficulty.  In previous years, in fact, the German religious had attacked the ecclesiastical power accusing it of moral and spiritual degeneration, strongly undermining the consensus of the Church of Rome. which will go down in history as the Council of Trent, during which the statements of the Protestants will be discussed and an internal renewal will be sought.

The Council was held between 1545 and 1563 between Trento and Bologna.  The popes involved are: Paul II Julius III (from 1551 to 1555) Marcellus II (April-May 1255) Paul IV The Church through the Council aims to: Respond to attacks from Protestants; Re-propose principles and dogmas of Christian orthodoxy ; Renew their discipline, the methods of clergy training and preaching during Mass; Improve the tools for controlling and defending the Catholic faith, but without questioning the traditions and truths to which the conscience of Christians has constantly referred , and that the Protestant schism wants to contest. The Pope does not participate in the first person, but controls its activity through his papal legates.  The council, which will only end in 1563, tackles issues relating to doctrine and problems relating to the discipline of the clergy at the same time.  Conclusions With frequent references to the positions of Protestants, officially condemned, the Council addresses many issues that have been the subject of controversy, always reaffirming the traditional position of the Church: The foundations of the Christian faith are established, namely divine revelation, contained in the Bible and The interpretation of Sacred Scripture is the exclusive privilege of the Church and cannot be left to the free will of individual consciences: this point is in stark contrast to the Protestant doctrine. The usefulness of works for the purpose of salvation and indulgences is reaffirmed. , the legitimacy of the cult of Mary and of the Saints, the sacredness of the Seven Sacraments. The Church also stresses that no believer has the right to consider himself predestined to salvation, contrary to what the Calvinists affirmed.  What the Council establishes The Council fathers introduce some innovations in matters of discipline and conduct of priests: Seminaries are established with the aim of preparing future priests for the duties imposed on them by their vocation; To offer the faithful an adequate religious formation , priests are required to teach doctrine and bishops to reside permanently in their diocese and to make periodic pastoral visits there; To restore the dignity of the clergy, the obligations of celibacy are reaffirmed (this in open opposition to Protestants), of the cassock and the prohibition on accumulating benefits. Finally, the characteristics of religious art are precisely defined.